Essay: Organizational Behavior

Seventeenth Edition

Chapter 9

Foundations of Group Behavior

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Welcome to this Organizational Behavior course that uses the 17th edition of the textbook, Organizational Behavior by Robbins and Judge. This is considered among the most widely used OB textbooks in the world. Robbins and Judge are recognized as definitive aggregators of OB concepts, applications, and practices. The course and this book will provide you with a resource that will benefit you throughout your degree program and your professional life.

Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

9.1 Distinguish between the different types of groups.

9.2 Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of group development.

9.3 Show how role requirements change in different situations.

9.4 Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individuals behavior.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Distinguish between the different types of groups.

Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of group development.

Show how role requirements change in different situations.

Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individuals behavior.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

9.5 Show how status and size differences affect group performance.

9.6 Describe how issues of cohesiveness and diversity can be integrated for group effectiveness.

9.7 Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.

Additonal objectives for this chapter 9.

Show how status and size differences affect group performance.

Describe how issues of cohesiveness and diversity can be integrated for group effectiveness.

Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.

Distinguish Between Different Types of Groups (1 of 5)

A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.

Groups can be either formal or informal.

Formal groups: those defined by the organizations structure.

Informal groups: alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.

A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal.

Formal groups, like an airline flight crew, are those defined by the organizations structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks. The behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. In contrast, informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined, but instead are natural formations in the work environment in response to the need for social contact. So, for example, three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together is an informal group.

Distinguish Between Different Types of Groups (2 of 5)

Social identity theory: considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.

People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group.

Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with people.

Why do people form groups? Our tendency to take personal pride or offense for the accomplishments of a group is the territory of social identity theory.

Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with other people, but they can have a negative side as well.

Distinguish Between Different Types of Groups (3 of 5)

Note: Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM) survey of 501 individuals and how drinking is viewed in their organization at a range of workrelated activities.

Source: Based on S. M. Heathfield, To Drink or Not to Drink: Does Alcohol Drinking Mix Safely with Work Events? About.com Guide, 2013, http ://humanresources.about.com/od/networking/qt/drink_i3.htm.

Until now, weve discussed social identities primarily in a cultural context. However, the identity we may feel with respect to our organization is only one aspect of our work-related identities (see OB Poll). Within our organizations and workgroups, we can develop many identities through: (1) relational identification, when we connect with others because of our roles, and (2) collective identification, when we connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups.

Distinguish Between Different Types of Groups (4 of 5)

Ingroups and Outgroups

Ingroup favoritism occurs when we see members of our group as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same.

Whenever there is an ingroup, there is by necessity an outgroup, which is sometimes everyone else, but is usually an identified group known by the ingroups members.

Probably the biggest downside is that social identities encourage ingroup favoritism, which occurs when we see members of our ingroup as better than other people and people not in our group as all the same. Recent research suggests that people with low openness and/or low agreeableness are more susceptible to ingroup favoritism.

Whenever there is an ingroup, there is by necessity an outgroup, which is sometimes everyone else, but is usually an identified group known by the ingroups members. When there are ingroups and outgroups, there is often animosity between them.

One of the most powerful sources of ingroup-outgroup feelings is the practice of religion, even in the workplace. One global study, for instance, found that when groups became heavily steeped in religious rituals and discussions, they became especially discriminatory toward outgroups and aggressive if the outgroups had more resources.

Distinguish Between Different Types of Groups (5 of 5)

Social Identity Threat

Ingroups and outgroups pave the way for social identity threat, which is akin to stereotype threat.

Individuals believe they will be personally negatively evaluated due to their association with a devalued group, and they may lose confidence and performance effectiveness.

Ingroups and outgroups pave the way for social identity threat, which is akin to stereotype. With social identity threat, individuals believe they will be personally negatively evaluated due to their association with a devalued group, and they may lose confidence and performance effectiveness.

Describe the Punctuated Equilibrium Model

Exhibit 9-1 The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

Temporary groups with deadlines dont seem to follow the usual five-stage model. Studies indicate they have their own unique sequencing of actions (or inaction). Their first meeting sets the groups direction. This first phase of group activity is one of inertia. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. A transition initiates major changes. A second phase of inertia follows the transition, and the groups last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. This pattern, called the punctuated-equilibrium model, is shown in Exhibit 9-1.

The first meeting sets the groups direction. A framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions emerges. These lasting patterns can appear as early as the first few seconds of the groups life. Once set, the groups direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. This is a period of inertiathe group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions.

Then a transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time. The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members awareness that their time is limited and that they need to get moving. A transition initiates major changes. This ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised direction for Phase 2. Phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during the transition period. The groups last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.

Show How Role Requirements Change (1 of 3)

Role: a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.

Role perception: ones perception of how to act in a given situation.

Role expectations: how others believe one should act in a given situation.

Psychological contract

All group members are actors, each playing a role. We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. Many of these roles are compatible; some create conflicts. Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.

Role perception refers to ones view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation. We get these perceptions from stimuli all around usfriends, books, movies, television. The primary reason that apprenticeship programs exist is to allow beginners to watch an expert, so that they can learn to act as they are supposed to.

Role expectations refers to how others believe you should act in a given situation. The psychological contract is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer. It sets out mutual expectationswhat management expects from workers, and vice versa. It defines the behavioral expectations that go with every role. If role expectations as implied are not met, expect negative repercussions from the offended party.

Show How Role Requirements Change (2 of 3)

Role conflict: situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations.

We can experience interrole conflict when the expectations of our different, separate groups are in opposition.

Role conflict: At the extreme, two or more role expectations are mutually contradictory. It exists when compliance with one role requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another.

We can experience interrole conflict when the expectations of our different, separate groups are in opposition. Within organizations, most employees are simultaneously in occupations, workgroups, divisions, and demographic groups, and these identities can conflict when the expectations of one clash with the expectations of another.

During mergers and acquisitions, employees can be torn between their identities as members of their original organization and of the new parent company.

Multinational organizations also have been shown to lead to dual identificationwith the local division and with the international organization.

Show How Role Requirements Change (3 of 3)

Role Play and Assimilation

Philip Zimbardos prison experiment.

Participants easily and rapidly assumed roles that were very different from their inherent personalities.

One of the most illuminating role and identity experiments was done a number of years ago by Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his associates. They created a prison in the basement of the Stanford psychology building, hired, at $15 a day, two dozen emotionally stable, physically healthy, law-abiding students who scored normal average on extensive personality tests, randomly assigned them the role of either guard or prisoner, and established some basic rules.

It took little time for the prisoners to accept the authority positions of the guards and for the mock guards to adjust to their new authority roles. Consistent with social identity theory, the guards came to see the prisoners as a negative out-group, and their comments to researchers showed they had developed stereotypes about the typical prisoner personality type. After the guards crushed a rebellion attempt on the second day, the prisoners became increasingly passive. Whatever the guards dished out, the prisoners took. The prisoners actually began to believe and act as if they were inferior and powerless, as the guards constantly reminded them. And every guard, at some time during the simulation, engaged in abusive, authoritative behavior. One said, I was surprised at myselfI made them call each other names and clean the toilets out with their bare hands. I practically considered the prisoners cattle, and I kept thinking: I have to watch out for them in case they try something. Surprisingly, during the entire experimenteven after days of abusenot one prisoner said, Stop this. Im a student like you. This is just an experiment!

The simulation actually proved too successful in demonstrating how quickly individuals learn new roles. The researchers had to end it after only 6 days because of the participants pathological reactions. And remember, these were individuals chosen precisely for their normalcy and emotional stability.

What should you conclude from this prison simulation?

The participants had learned stereotyped conceptions of guard and prisoner roles from the mass media and their own personal experiences in power and powerless relationships at home.

This allowed them easily and rapidly to assume roles that were very different from their inherent personalities.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (1 of 7)

Norms:

Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members.

All groups have norms, or acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the groups members. Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (2 of 7)

Norms and Emotions

A recent study found that, in a task group, individuals emotions influenced the groups emotions and vice versa.

Researchers have also found that norms dictated the experience of emotions for the individuals and for the groups in other words, people grew to interpret their shared emotions in the same way.

All groups have norms, or acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the groups members.

A recent study found that, in a task group, individuals emotions influenced the groups emotions and vice versa.

Researchers have also found that norms dictated the experience of emotions for the individuals and for the groups in other words, people grew to interpret their shared emotions in the same way.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (3 of 7)

Exhibit 9-2 Examples of Cards Used in Aschs Study

There is considerable evidence that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups standard. The pressure that group exerts for conformity was demonstrated by Solomon Asch.

Groups of seven or eight people were asked to compare two cards held by the experimenter, as shown in Exhibit 9-2. One card had one line; the other had three lines of varying length. Under ordinary conditions, subjects made less than one percent error. The experiment began with several sets of matching exercises. All the subjects gave the right answers. On the third set, however, the first subject gave an obviously wrong answer, the next subject gave the same wrong answer, and so did the others until it got to the unknowing subject.

The results obtained by Asch demonstrated that over many experiments and many trials, subjects conformed in about 37% of the trials; the subjects gave answers that they knew were wrong but that were consistent with the replies of other group members. Has time altered the validity of these findings of nearly 50 years ago, and are they generalizable across cultures? Yes, levels of conformity have steadily declined. Furthermore, Aschs findings are culture-bound. Conformity to social norms is higher in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures.

Individuals conform to the important groups to which they belong or hope to belong. However, all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members. Important groups are referred to as reference groups. The reference group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others; the person defines himself or herself as a member, or would like to be a member; and the person feels that the group members are significant to him/her.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (4 of 7)

Norms and Emotions

A recent study found that, in a task group, individuals emotions influenced the groups emotions and vice versa.

Researchers have also found that norms dictated the experience of emotions for the individuals and for the groups in other words, people grew to interpret their shared emotions in the same way.

Norms in the workplace significantly influence employee behavior. Experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932 by Elton Mayo at Western Electric at the companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago. The Hawthorne researchers began by examining the relationship between the physical environment and productivity. Illumination and other working conditions were selected to represent this physical environment.

The researchers initial findings contradicted their anticipated results. As a follow-up, the researchers began a second set of experiments in the relay assembly test room at Western Electric. Observations covering a multiyear period found this small groups output increased steadily. It became evident this groups performance was significantly influenced by its status as special. In essence, workers in both the illumination and assembly-test-room experiments were reacting to the increased attention they received.

A third study, in the bank wiring observation room, was introduced to ascertain the effect of a sophisticated wage incentive plan. The most important finding of this study was that employees did not individually maximize their outputs. Their output became controlled by a group norm that determined what was a proper days work.

Interviews determined the group was operating well below its capability and was leveling output to protect itself.

Members were afraid that if they significantly increased their output, the unit incentive rate would be cut, the expected daily output would be increased, layoffs might occur, or slower workers would be reprimanded.

The norms the group established included a number of donts:

Dont be a rate-buster, turning out too much work.

Dont be a chiseler, turning out too little work.

Dont squeal on any of your peers.

How did the group enforce these norms?

The methods included sarcasm, name-calling, ridicule, and even punches to the upper arm of any member who violated the groups norms.

Members also ostracized individuals whose behavior was against the groups interest.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (5 of 7)

Positive Norms and Group Outcomes

One goal of every organization with corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives is for its values to hold normative sway over employees.

If employees aligned their thinking with positive norms, these norms would become stronger and the probability of positive impact would grow exponentially.

Positive group norms may well beget positive outcomes, but only if other factors are present.

One goal of every organization with corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives is for its values to hold normative sway over employees. After all, if employees aligned their thinking with positive norms, these norms would become stronger and the probability of positive impact would grow exponentially.

We might expect the same outcomes from political correctness (PC) norms. But what is the effect of strong positive norms on group outcomes?

The popular thinking is that to increase creativity in groups, for instance, norms should be loosened. However, research on gender-diverse groups indicates that strong PC norms increase group creativity. Positive group norms may well beget positive outcomes, but only if other factors are present, too.

As powerful as norms can be, though, not everyone is equally susceptible to positive group norms. Individual personalities factor in, too, as well as the level of a persons social identity with the group.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (6 of 7)

Exhibit 9-3 Typology of Deviant Workplace Behavior

Category Examples
Production Leaving early Intentionally working slowly Wasting resources
Property Sabotage Lying about hours worked Stealing from the organization
Political Showing favoritism Gossiping and spreading rumors Blaming coworkers
Personal aggression Sexual harassment Verbal abuse Stealing from coworkers
Sources: S. H. Appelbaum, G. D. Iaconi, and A. Matousek, Positive and Negative Deviant Workplace Behaviors: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions, Corporate Governance 7, no. 5 (2007): 58698; and R. W. Griffin, and A. OLeary-Kelly, The Dark Side of Organizational Behavior (New York: Wiley, 2004).

Deviant workplace behavioralso known as antisocial behavior or workplace incivilityrefers to voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Exhibit 9-3 shows a typology of deviant workplace behaviors.

When deviant workplace behavior occurs, it can affect employee commitment, cooperation, and motivation. This can lead to performance issues and a lack of job satisfaction. Someone who ordinarily wouldnt engage in deviant behavior might be more likely to do so when working in a group.

Show How Norms Exert Influence On An Individuals Behavior (7 of 7)

Norms and Culture

Do people in collectivist cultures have different norms than people in individualist cultures? Of course they do.

But did you know that our orientation may be changed, even after years of living in one society.

Do people in collectivist cultures have different norms than people in individualist cultures? Of course they do. But did you know that our orientation may be

changed, even after years of living in one society? In a recent experiment, an organizational role-playing exercise was given to a neutral group of subjects; the exercise stressed either collectivist or individualist norms. Subjects were then given a task of their personal choice or were assigned one by an ingroup or outgroup person. When the individualist-primed subjects were allowed personal choice of the task, or the collectivist-primed subjects were assigned the task by an ingroup person, they became more highly motivated.

Show How Status and Size Differences Affect Performance (1 of 3)

Status: a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.

Status characteristics theory: status is derived from one of three sources:

The power a person wields over others.

A persons ability to contribute to a groups goals.

An individuals personal characteristics.

Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.

Status characteristics theory suggests that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. Status is derived from one of three sources. First is the power a person wields over others. Second is a persons ability to contribute to a groups goals. And third is an individuals personal characteristics.

Show How Status and Size Differences Affect Performance (2 of 3)

Status and Norms: high status individuals often have more freedom to deviate from norms.

Status and Group Interaction: high status people are often more assertive.

Status Inequity: perceived inequity creates disequilibrium and can lead to resentment and corrective behavior.

Status and Stigmatization: stigma by association.

Status and norms can influence behavior in organizations. High-status members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than other group members. High-status people also are better able to resist conformity pressures. This explains why many star athletes, famous actors, top-performing salespeople, and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or social norms.

Status and group interaction is influenced by status. High-status people tend to be assertive. Status differences can inhibit the diversity of ideas and creativity. Moreover, lower-status members tend to be less active.

When status inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior. Hierarchical groups can lead to resentment among those at the lower end of the status continuum. Large differences in status within groups is also associated with poorer individual performance, lower health, and higher intentions to leave the group. Managers who occupy central positions in their social networks are typically seen as higher in status by their subordinates, and this position translates into greater influence over the groups functioning.

Finally, the status of the people with whom you are affiliated can affect how others view you. Studies have shown that people who are stigmatized against can infect others with their stigma. This stigma by association effect can result in negative opinions and evaluations of the person affiliated with the stigmatized individual.

Show How Status and Size Differences Affect Performance (3 of 3)

Group size affects the groups overall behavior.

Large groups are good for gaining diverse input.

Smaller groups are better doing something with input.

Social loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone.

The size of a group affects the groups overall behavior, but the effect depends on the dependent variables. Large groups of a dozen or more members are good for gaining diverse input. Smaller groups of about seven members are better at doing something productive with that input.

One of the most important findings about the size of a group concerns social loafing, or the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone.

Integrating Cohesiveness and Diversity for Group Effectiveness (1 of 2)

Exhibit 9-4 Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity

Groups differ in their cohesiveness, or the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. Cohesiveness is important because its related to the groups productivity. As shown here in Exhibit 9-4, the relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the group. If performance-related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive. If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low.

Encourage group cohesiveness by:

Making the group smaller

Encouraging agreement with group goals

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Essay: Organizational Behavior

Essay: Organizational Behavior

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